By: Kashif Anwar, Research Analyst, GSDN

Background

With an era of rapprochement in the Middle East in the form of the Abraham Accords in 2020, the Iran-Saudi Arabia peace deal and the Saudi Arabia-Israel normalisation (which has now been put on ice), a deadly attack by Hamas in Southern Israel, took place 50 years after the Yom Kippur War of 1973, on October 7, 2023, which was code-named Operation Al-Aqsa Flood. This attack and Israel’s subsequent military action in the Gaza Strip, impacted the peace developments in the Middle East and has raised many questions. While Hamas is championed as a freedom fighter group among many Arab countries, the West and Israel view it as a terrorist group.

The ongoing war in the Middle East

To understand the ongoing conflict between Hamas and the Israeli Defence Forces, which resulted from a deadly attack by the Hamas group in Southern Israel on October 7, 2023 the attack, though highlighted the effectiveness of Hamas in taking on the Israeli Defence Forces. The attack brought to fore once again the importance of Two-State solution and put the Saudi Arabia-Israel normalisation process on hold. The attack gave the Netanyahu’s government a free hand to organise and proceed with a retaliatory military operation, code-named Operation Swords of Iron, against Hamas which has adversely impacted the innocent civilians residing in the Gaza Strip. The United Nations has questioned and asked Israel to rescind the evacuation of 1 million people from North Gaza, considering its impact on the people who will be pushed to migrate to the Sinai peninsula, a movement opposed by Egypt.

Considering the history of conflict between Israel and Palestine, the trauma of Nakba Day and the assassination of the Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin by Yigal Amir, a Jewish Israeli to stop the peace process under the Oslo Accord on November 4, 1995, and clashes over the years has made the peace process and Two-State solution complicated. Since the 1990s, Israel’s policy towards Palestine has changed, and despite differences among various parties, groups and lobbies, from the left wing to peace camp to the right wing in Israel, they all agree with the continuation of occupation of the Palestine territory. Such events make all conflicts and wars in the region unjust and uncalled for, including the ongoing Hamas-Israel war.

Comparing with the Russia-Ukraine Conflict

The Hamas attack of October 07, 2023 in Southern Israel happened 50 years after the Yom Kippur War of 1973. The attack highlighted the ineffectiveness of Israel’s Iron Dome System and the failure of Israel’s intelligence network. With Hamas firing rockets numbering about 5000 by its Izz ad-Din al-Qassam Brigade, it exposed the myth and might of such a weapon system. The attack and intelligence failure have become a point of worry and contention for Israel and many worldwide. As Egypt provided inputs of such an attack three days before to Israel, no actions were taken, highlighting the ignorance and incompliance from Israel’s end. Meanwhile, it also raises serious questions about whether such an attack was allowed to took place to push forward the nationalist sentiment, militarism and fear in Israel. The timing of such attack will subdue the ongoing protest against the Netanyahu government’s attempt to weaken the nation’s judiciary or otherwise it happened because of Israel’s overconfidence, the exact contours of which will be known only in the times ahead.

However, with such an attack, a comparison has begun between the Hamas-Israel war and the Russia-Ukraine conflict. Looking into the actions the Israeli government took in Gaza, Russian President Vladimir Putin has cautioned Israel to stop using Nazi tactics like the siege of Leningrad in Gaza and he sees no difference in Israel’s response to the Hamas attack, which according to the Russian President is unacceptable. On the other hand, the Ukraine President Zelensky sees and compares the Hamas attack on Israel to Russia’s invasion of Ukraine and argues that the world should unite against such aggression. However, a recent standing ovation for a 98-year-old Ukrainian Nazi Yaroslay Hunka, from the SS 14^th Waffen Division, following President Zelensky’s speech in the Canadian Parliament, reflects the West’s selectiveness and insensitiveness towards the Jewish community. Considering Russia’s Nazi claims and its presence in Ukraine, the West sees it as a Russian common political ploy to spread fake news. On the other hand, the West’s silence and support of Israel’s military response and official statement to cut off all supplies to Gaza has become a genocidal act, worsening the condition of people, thus projecting the West’s double-standards.

The recent Hamas attack is viewed by the Arab countries as a counter-response to atrocities committed by the Israelis on Palestinians in recent years, which has pushed Russia and the West into a delicate situation. The attack happened at a time when Russia and the West are engaged in a conflict in Ukraine, and the continuation of the Hamas-Israel war will open a new frontier in the West’s geopolitical conflict with Russia, including Iran. Lack of West’s strong critique of Israel’s blockade of Gaza and indiscriminate bombing in the region contradicts the West’s stand when they openly criticised and questioned the Russian army besieging the city of Mariupol, Ukraine. The Russia-Ukraine conflict has become a NATO vs Russia conflict, with money and military aid poured into the conflict to enforce dominance and highlight power. Such a contrast in the West’s response to the Hamas-Israel war highlights their contradiction in its stand to promote peace, prosperity and stability worldwide.

West’s double-standards exposed

In the case of the Palestine-Israel conflict over the rightful owner of the region, fear and trauma of innocent peoples have been played over the decades. Britain hasn’t taken measures of moral responsibility, including symbolic for what they did to the Palestinians to defeat the Ottoman Empire as is given in the ten letters which form part of the McMahon-Hussein Correspondence of 1914-15. Such treatment of Palestinians continued, and the West’s silence and ignorance of the voice of Palestinian statehood is subdued on the social media platform, which impacts the scope and hopes for a two-state. To understand it better, the lack of a strong response and stand from the global leaders of the West on attacks, clashes, interference, and incursion in the Al-Aqsa compound in 2022, by the Israelis has widened the wedge between the Israelis and Palestinians.

A clear distinction is visible in how the West has responded to the Russian invasion of Ukraine and the atrocities committed by Israel in Gaza and the West Bank. When Ukraine’s counter-attack began, the West celebrated such a move to end the Russian invasion. On the other hand, when the Palestinian nationals are doing the same thing over the years against the Israeli occupation, the West strongly condemns such an act. In contrast, it does not mean the crimes committed by Hamas in Israel are right, but such blame games and selective responses have emerged due to the West’s selective responses and move to secure its interest in the Middle East region. As the West, including its powerful media, questioned the Russian ruthlessness in Ukraine, a contrast was seen in their stand and support of Israel’s military response to Hamas Gaza, with innocent civilians facing the major brunt, yet again highlighted the West’s hypocrisy.

Post-Hamas attack, the European Union response, like freezing of aid to Palestine, was viewed as a botched response and faced criticism from Spain, Luxemburg and Ireland, who stated such a decision wasn’t approved by the EU member states. Further, a statement from the EU President Von der Leyen showing sympathy towards Israel and stating Israel has a right to defend itself without highlighting or ensuring that Israel follows the Geneva Convention of 1949 in its military operation in Gaza, has drawn criticism from within the EU. Such a swift response to ensure the rights and safety of Israelis are protected and secured was missing in the case of Palestine over the years, and the West’s measures to stop and withhold any pro-Palestine rally speaks volumes today of West following double standards.

As many developed nations are taking measures to curb pro-Palestinian protests, rallies and marches, like in the case of Australia, police authorities were given a special power ‘stop-and-search’ invoked after two decades to ensure and keep an eye on the pro-Palestinian rally. On the other hand, in France, the government has banned pro-Palestinian rallies in the name of public order, which critics have argued is an attack on freedom of speech and civil liberties as no such restrictions were imposed in the case of events supporting Israel. Such biased responses and double standards from the West are growing visible. As a moment of silence was observed in the EU Parliament, Brussels, on October 11, 2023, for people killed in the Hamas attack IN Israe, the EU leaders failed to mention about Palestinian civilians killed by the Israeli Defence Forces, highlighting the West’s narrow viewpoint. Furthermore, the Netherlands and Germany’s halting of any rally and march in solidarity with the Palestinian cause pushed many civil society and human rights groups across Europe to decry such restrictions and see it as an attack on the freedom of expression and assembly in Europe.

Conclusion

The ongoing Hamas-Israel war can potentially worsen the crisis situation within the European Institutions. The presence of a significant difference in positions on Israel’s military operation in the Gaza Strip, a lack of coordination and conflicting statements by senior officials could make the situation difficult for the EU. It could be amplified by Israel’s non-compliance with the rules of war and international humanitarian law. With the EU and US response to Israel’s action remain mild, the Russia-Ukraine conflict and now the Hamas-Israel war highlight West’s stand and projects their double-standards. With pro-Palestine rallies and protests growing the world over, the voice against Israel’s war crimes in Gaza rising in Israel, the West should ensure the war doesn’t spill over and become a regional war.

The West’s quick response to stand and sympathise with Israel and support its blockade of Gaza, many dissents in Israel, like Gideon Levy, an Israeli senior and respected journalist, argues that such a move highlights that the voice of the Palestinian cause has been forgotten while Israel has gained sympathy. With pro-Palestinian rallies being watched and put under heavy restrictions in the West, the support for the Palestine cause has increased in the Middle East and Global South. The Saudi Arabia-Israel normalisation process has been put on hold, worrying the West about its Middle East project to keep Russia and China away from the region. In such a scenario, the West should instead take a firm stand to ensure Israel complies with the international laws and secures a ceasefire at the earliest to avoid another humanitarian catastrophe.

By: Brig KGK Nair, SM (Retd)

I don’t know how we are all so surprised by civilian deaths. In any conflict, civilians die, but naturally. They are helpless, shelterless and most vulnerable.

Even when we operate with utmost care in the Counter Insurgency Operations, civilians die. In one particular operation, a small girl almost lost her life when she was caught in the crossfire with two terrorists in the jungles of Shalnar in Anantnag, Jammu and Kashmir, India. Despite best practices that we followed in the battalion that I was serving in, I thought she was gone. But during the search for bodies, we found her safe in the corn field adjoining her home and I just took her in my arms and hugged her till eternity.

Besides there’s collateral damage to property which is unavoidable because they get into civilian houses and govt property. So, civilians dying is as much collateral damage as damage to any property.

In conventional wars the damage and death increase manifolds. In the World War II, the total civilian deaths could easily cross 50 million, if not more. Germany and Japan alone would have lost 2 million if not more, in my opinion. Where were the human rights then? So why the bleeding hearts now? When civilians remain mute spectators and do not stand up to stupid regimes, even if of their own race and religion, death is surely to follow. The Gazans and Palestinians have supported Hamas, willingly or tacitly just like the Germans supported Hitler during his reign. A few good souls here or there is immaterial. They’ll all face the wrath of the War! While the terrorists and non-state actors do it openly, the states and it’s military and covert organs may do it either unwittingly or deliberately, and then deny it.

War is ugly. War is however necessary, and there’s nothing to repent.

There’s no white, no black, there’s just grey!

By: Lt Col JS Sodhi (Retd), Editor, GSDN

Indian Army’s Eastern Command organised a spectacular and splendid display of the might of the Indian Military Industrial Complex through the East Tech 2023 in Guwahati, the capital of the Indian state of Assam on October 10-11, 2023.

East Tech 2023 was inaugurated by Mr Bimal Bora, the Minister of Industries and Commerce, Government of Assam in the presence of Lieutenant General RP Kalita, PVSM, UYSM, AVSM, SM, VSM, General Officer Commanding-in-Chief, Eastern Command, apart from a host of civilian and military dignitaries.

The motto of East Tech 2023 was “Soldering Through Self Reliance”, which was an apt and appropriate motto keeping in view the strides that India has made in the field of indigenous defence manufacturing as per the vision of Prime Minister Narendra Modi who gave the iconic slogans of Atmanirbhar Bharat and Make in India in 2014 and 2020 respectively.

Lieutenant General RP Kalita, PVSM, UYSM, AVSM, SM, VSM, General Officer Commanding-in-Chief, Eastern Command in his welcome address stated that the Eastern Command is the largest operational command of the Indian Army and it operates in all kinds of terrain. The Eastern Command has been hand-holding and supporting all the ventures of the indigenous defence manufacturers which will propel India to further make the latest and the best defence weapon systems. He also said that 200 firms are taking part in displaying their military hardware in East Tech 2023. The General Officer also added that East Tech 2022 which was held in Kolkata last year, was a resounding success and after that event, 37 products have been identified for use in the Eastern Command and the process is being taken forward.

Mr Bimal Bora, Industries and Commerce Minister, Government of Assam in his inauguration speech said that Assam is a conducive state for startups and MSMEs, where the domestic manufacturers of defence equipment should establish their manufacturing bases.

East Tech 2023 was a very well organised exhibition which saw large numbers of public witnessing the grand event which showcased the success of the Indian military industrial complex. On display were many latest weapon systems, some of which have yet to be inducted in the Indian Armed Forces.

Later in the day, a media interaction was held in which Lieutenant General RP Kalita, PVSM, UYSM, AVSM, SM, VSM, General Officer Commanding-in-Chief, Eastern Command answered various questions posed by the press. On a question by the author of this article, on whether the Indian Armed Forces are planning to open up the manufacturing of ammunition to the private sector as the manufacturing of hardware by the private sector has proved to be a success, the Army Commander said that the process is already on and certain trials are going on in the field formations.

East Tech 2023 was a great platform for the Army and the Industry to interact which will go a long way to enhance the combat potential of the Indian Army, which is rated as one of the finest armies of the world. The event conducted from October 10-11, 2023 was a resounding success and should pave the way for more collaborations. The Red Horns Division under the Eastern Command, which was the organising formation of East Tech 2023 did a fabulous and fantastic job in organising the exhibition and every minute detail was very well looked into, thereby showing the might of the Indian Army in every field that they partake a task in.

By: Lt Col JS Sodhi (Retd), Editor, GSDN

Three major terrorist attacks in the Rajouri and Poonch districts of Jammu & Kashmir have shown that the new battleground for the Indian Army’s war on terror on the Jihadis operating in Jammu & Kashmir with the aid of Pakistan, has shifted from the traditional hotbeds of Baramulla and Sopore in the North of Pir Panjal range (NPPR) to the South of Pir Panjal Range (SPPR).

The three major terror attacks were the attack of April 20, 2023 in which five Indian Army soldiers of a Rashtriya Rifles battalion were killed in a vehicular ambush in Bhata Durian in Poonch. The second attack was on May 05, 2023 in which five Parachute Commandos of the elite Special Forces of the Indian Army were killed in Kesari hills of Thanamandi in Rajouri and the third one was on October 03, 2023 in which three soldiers of the Indian Army were injured in a counter insurgency operation in the dense Kalakote forests in Rajouri.

Clearly, the peace that the Rajouri and Poonch districts saw in the last 15 years has been shattered and the Indian Army finds itself in thicker counter insurgency with its troops combating the terrorists in the entire Jammu & Kashmir apart from its deployment against Pakistan on the Line of Control (LOC) and against China on the Line of Actual Control (LAC) in the Indian union territories of Jammu & Kashmir and Ladakh.

The reasons for the shifting landscape of terrorism from NPPR to SPPR can be enumerated as follows-

Geographical Factors – The Rajouri and Poonch regions, situated along the LOC offer a strategic advantage for terrorist activities due to their proximity to the LOC with Pakistan. The rugged terrain and dense forests provide cover and facilitation for infiltrations and terrorist operations.

Security Measures in Kashmir Valley – The enhanced security apparatus and successful counter-terrorism operations in the Kashmir Valley have forced the terrorist networks to seek alternative bases of operation. The Rajouri and Poonch regions present a comparatively softer target, making them attractive for terrorist outfits.

Closing of Passes – All the traditional routes of crossing over to the Kashmir valley from the SPPR are snow covered during the months of December to March. It is a major obstacle in the path of the terrorists to the Kashmir Valley located in NPPR. With the shift in dynamics of SPPR and change in tactics of the terrorists, it is highly likely that the terrorists choose not to cross over to the Kashmir Valley and carry out strikes in the SPPR.

Upcoming General Elections of 2024 – Terrorists often use violence, intimidation and threats to deter candidates, voters, and election officials from participating in the electoral process. This can include targeted attacks on political rallies, party offices and individuals associated with the electoral process. As and when the elections will happen there will be attempts made by the terrorists to further disrupt the peace in the region, which will include increase in terrorist activities.

Changed tactics of terrorists – The traditional form of terrorism is no more in vogue. Changed dynamics has resulted in a changed terrorist who is suave, technically oriented and merges with the crowd and remains unidentifiable by looks and conduct.

Interference with Civilian Life – Terrorism seeks to disrupt the daily lives of civilians and create an atmosphere of fear. Shifting the focus to regions like Rajouri and Poonch allows terrorists to achieve this objective while avoiding heavily guarded areas.

Implications of terrorists shifting base to SPPR

Increased Threat to Civilian Population –      The shift places a higher risk on civilian populations in the Rajouri and Poonch regions. These areas are less accustomed to the regular presence of terrorism, potentially making them more vulnerable to attacks.

Challenges for Security Forces – The changing dynamics pose new challenges for security forces. They have to adapt their strategies and operations to effectively counter the rising threat in these areas while maintaining stability in the Kashmir Valley.

Economic Impact – Terrorism negatively impacts local economies by deterring investment and disrupting trade. The shift of terrorism to new regions may hamper economic development in Rajouri and Poonch, hindering progress and prosperity.

The shift of terrorism from the Kashmir Valley to the Rajouri and Poonch regions reflects the adaptability and resilience of terrorist networks. Addressing this shift requires a multi-faceted approach involving not only security measures but also community engagement, intelligence enhancement, and socio-economic development. Every year 50,000-60,000 Indian Army personnel retire. They should be given land at extremely cheap rates so that majority of them settle down in Jammu & Kashmir. This will bring down terrorism significantly as Veterans will aid in a more conducive demography for peace and prosperity. This method has been successfully tried by China and Israel. By understanding the changing dynamics and taking proactive measures, a more secure and prosperous Jammu and Kashmir region can be worked towards to.

The Northern Command and the White Knight Corps of the Indian Army are doing a phenomenal task in curbing and controlling terrorism in the SPPR. Though faced with immense challenges and complexities, the Northern Command and the White Knight Corps are working day and night to ensure that peace and prosperity reigns supreme once again in SPPR.

By: Lt Col JS Sodhi (Retd), Editor, GSDN

In a move that could further spell the death-knell of democracy in Pakistan, a Serving General Officer of the Pakistan Army has been appointed as the chairman of the National Database and Registration Authority (NADRA) on October 02, 2023.

NADRA plays a pivotal role in the Pakistan administrative framework. It is solely responsible for maintaining the nation’s database including the citizens biometric and demographic information. The appointment of the NADRA chairman is a significant decision as it directly impacts the integrity and effectiveness of the organisation. In the recent years the appointment process of the NADRA chairman in Pakistan has garnered much media attention raising questions about the transparency, accountability and qualifications of the selected candidate.

Since quite some time now the appointment of the NADRA chairman has been besieged with immense controversies. These controversies revolve around three main critical issues. Firstly, that the process of selecting the NADRA chairman lacks total transparency and is susceptible to the political influence. Some of the earlier NAFRA chairmen have been made more on personal connections rather than on merit. Secondly, to be effective as the NADRA chairman, he should have requisite qualifications and experience as NADRA is a very complex organisation which is responsible for safeguarding sensitive citizen data. Thirdly, lot of political interference in NADRA’s affairs have been seen in the past. When the head of NADRA is perceived as being politically aligned, it can undermine the organization’s impartiality and raise doubts about the integrity of its functioning.

The previous chairman of Nadra was Tariq Malik who was appointed in June 2021 for a second term. Prior to this appointment he was serving at the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). Malik also had immense experience as he was among the 10 core members of the World Bank’s Technical Experts Group (TEG) which supported client countries with ID planning and implementation.

Since the appointment of Tariq Malik as chairman of NADRA in June 2021 was for a second time, he had been facing immense pressure from the Interior Minister of Pakistan to resign after reports emerged that some officials of NADRA had been involved in leaking the personal data of the previous Army chief General Qamar Bajwa.

Lieutenant General Munir Afsar who is serving three-star General Officer in the Pakistan Army was promoted to the rank of Lieutenant General in October 2022. It is for the first time in Pakistan’s history that a serving General Officer has been appointed the chairman of NADRA. The appointment of a serving General Officer as the NADRA chairman is yet another step in choking the democracy of Pakistan which for quite some time has come under the scanner of the international agencies.

Pakistan which for quite some time now has been seen internal disturbances leading to the arrest of the former Prime Minister Imran Khan, is yet to see stability return. The dates for elections to Pakistani National Assembly have not yet been announced.

The Pakistan Army wields immense control over the Government of Pakistan and the bureaucrats. And now with its full control through a serving General Officer in NADRA, the entire data of the Pakistani citizens is now in the hands of the Pakistan Army. How this data of the Pakistani citizens is used/misused will be known in the times ahead but one thing is for sure that the democracy in Pakistan is further being choked by the powerful Pakistan Army which calls the shots in Pakistan.

By: Darshan Gajjar, Research Analyst, GSDN

“All warfare is based on deception.” ~ Sun Tzu

Wars and conflicts are intertwined with the growth of human civilization. From the Peloponnesian wars of ancient Greece to the War on Terror in modern times, wars have been part of human societies for centuries. The famous historical dictum “Only the dead have seen the end of war,” which is widely attributed to the ancient Greek philosopher Plato, elucidates the innate struggle for human existence that manifests in the form of wars and conflict.

While everyone will agree with the enduring nature of the war, not everyone may agree on how wars could be fought. For some, means are as important as ends in the battle, while for others, their ends justify their means. Throughout history, in every major battle, “deception” has been used as a tool to achieve victory; however, different military generals have different conceptions of using it. The aim of this piece is to dig deep into the historical underpinnings of the role of “deception” in warfare while simultaneously highlighting its relevance in modern warfare.

Ancient China and Deception

The ancient Chinese military general Sun Tzu is widely respected in strategic circles for his realist foresight and understanding of the nature of warfare. In his sentimental work “The Art of War,” he notes different ways by which a conqueror can defeat the enemy.

“In all fighting, the direct method may be used for joining battle, but indirect methods will be needed in order to secure victory,” he writes. Here, indirect methods may include an act of deceit or deception. The teachings of Sun Tzu are mostly end-oriented, which means that to him, the outcome of the battle was more important than the methods used to achieve such an outcome. Winning the war without fighting is one of the prime pillars of Sun Tzu’s military doctrine, and one should not shy away from employing all the possible means to achieve favourable outcomes.

Further, during the period of the Warring States (475 BC–221 BC), tactics and tools such as feigned retreats, spreading misinformation, sudden ambushes and propaganda, in addition to strategic deception, were widely used by emperors at that time.

Thucydides and Peloponnesian War

Thucydides, an ancient Athenian historian and military general, pens down in “The History of the Peloponnesian War” a series of battles and events in which various deceptive measures have been used to gain victory in the battles.

While Thucydides does not explicitly write about deception, his writings suggest that he viewed deception as a common and expected aspect of human behaviour, especially when it comes to warfare and politics. As a political realist, he highlights how states and leaders, driven by their own interests and survival instincts, would employ deception for the betterment of the results.

Fought between 431 BC and 405 BC, the Peloponnesian War was one of the foremost wars of human history. A series of battles, conflicts, and treaties formed the war, the end of which led to the eventual downfall of both Sparta and Athens in the subsequent years.

Throughout the war, Thucydides described instances where states made false promises and used deceptive diplomatic tactics to manipulate their adversaries. Athenian leaders, for example, would offer peace and talk about further negotiations while secretly preparing their armies for military action.

He also adds how states use propaganda and manipulation to influence public opinion in their favour, which can be helpful in maintaining high morale during the conflict.

Arthashastra of Kautilya

The ancient Indian political thinker and strategist Kautilya, in his magnum opus, the Arthashastra, provided tools by which the king could maintain his power. Kautilya, yet again another realist, believed in the paramountcy of the state. The existence of the state presupposes everything in the Kautilyan governance matrix.

Divided into 15 books and a total of 150 chapters, it contains 180 topics and around 380 verses that deal with various issues of statecraft, from economics to governance and from the security of the state to foreign policy.

He advised using the tactics of sama, dana, bheda, and danda (i.e., adopting a conciliatory attitude, placating with rewards and gifts, sowing dissension among enemies, and using force, respectively). Based on the strength of the enemy, the king should employ any of the four or a combination of them to achieve the desired victory.

Here too, deception was one of the key pillars of Kautilyan statecraft. “Miraculous results can be achieved by practising the methods of subversion,” he writes, highlighting the importance of covert operations in warfare. The Arthashastra further notes down a range of clandestine deceptive operations. It suggests using deception to test the integrity of ministers and military commanders.

During peacetime, Kautilya suggests, the king should make sure to indoctrinate the enemy’s population and ministers through subversion, paving the way for moral chaos when the war happens. Again, here too, spreading misinformation and propaganda is considered necessary in order to negate the psychological reasoning of the enemy.

Carl von Clausewitz and “On War”

The Prussian military general Carl von Clausewitz is perhaps one of the most widely studied military theorists and generals of all time. Even today his tactics and theories are being studied by military academies across the world.

In his seminal book, On War, Clausewitz considered war to have a moral force, thus denigrating the role of deception, considering it to be “cunning.” He writes in this context, “To prepare a sham action with sufficient thoroughness to impress an enemy requires a considerable expenditure of time and effort, and the costs increase with the scale of the deception… And consequently, so-called strategic feints rarely have the desired effect.”

Clausewitz did not explicitly endorse or condemn deception in warfare; he recognised its presence and discussed its role within the larger framework of politico-military strategy.

The inherent uncertainties of any war were analysed by Clausewitz, and thus, according to him, deception can be useful in taking advantage of such uncertainties. Unlike Sun Tzu and Kautilya, Clausewitz talked about the limitations of using deceptive measures in warfare, citing operational and moral reasons.

Machiavelli and the Art of War

Any work on deception, be it military or statecraft, will be incomplete without mentioning Italian political thinker and diplomat Niccolò Machiavelli. Famous for his work, The Prince, Machiavelli is considered to have reached an epitome of realism through his writing. In his work “The Art of War”, which focuses on significant aspects of warfare and strategy, Machiavelli highlights the role of deception.

Machiavelli argued that deception was a crucial element of warfare and that a successful leader should be skilled in the art of deception to outmanoeuvre the enemy. He explained how surprise attacks and ambushes could lead to a decisive victory. Just like Kautilya, Machiavelli too believed in employing deception in diplomacy and negotiations. Skilful diplomacy can sow discord among enemies, which can be utilised to gain a victory.

Psychological warfare was another aspect of deception that Machiavelli suggested using. He explains through various case studies how creating fear and confusion in the enemy’s ranks could undermine their morale and decision-making, ultimately weakening their whole defence.

The World Wars

The twentieth century was devastated by two disastrous world wars, followed by the clandestine Cold War. It was during World War I and thereafter that we saw the doctrinal approach of using deception by means of propaganda and psychological warfare among other things.

For instance, during World War 1, both central and allied forces performed “false-flag operations,” in which the soldiers of the army disguised as enemy soldiers would cross the enemy lines and create disruption. Another such example is creating falsified trenches and giving misrepresented communications to the enemy.

Likewise, during World War II, we not only observed the use of deception for military purposes but also for political and ideological purposes. Hitler’s Third Reich and Stalin’s Soviet Union excessively exploited deception and propaganda for ideological and political outcomes.

In the initial phase of World War II, during the German invasion of France, the Wehrmacht, through Operation Fall Gelb (also known as Case Yellow), misled, through various deception techniques, about its intentions, which drew the attention of British forces away from the invasion that eventually resulted in the rapid fall of France.

Another of such famous examples is Operation Fortitude in 1944, the goal of which was to make German military leadership believe that the main Allied invasion of Europe will occur towards Norway and not at Normandy, paving the way for the D-Day.

Deception and Modern Warfare

With the advent of information and the digital age, the battlefield has transcended beyond conventional realms. Every person using a smartphone and the internet is a potential target of misinformation and deceptive actions by the adversary.

The widespread use of social media further augmented the possibility of waging psychological and cognitive warfare. Countries around the world are exploring ways to operationalize deceptive measures through a doctrinal approach. China’s “Unrestricted Warfare” and three warfares strategy, Russia’s “New Generational Warfare”, along with its famous Gerasimov Doctrine, propounded by General Valery Gerasimov, that talks about combining military, information, economic, technological, diplomatic, cultural and other tactics for the purpose of achieving strategic and kinetic goals, are a few such examples.

As we have seen throughout this piece, deception is an inalienable part of the spectrum of warfare, and it will be for the foreseeable future. With the rise of disruptive military technologies, the use of such measures will further see advancements in the non-kinetic measures of warfare that can be leveraged by developing offensive and defensive capabilities against such threats.