By: Colonel Harpreet Singh Jaiswal (Retired)

According to the International Air Transport Association’s (IATA) Annual Safety Report 2023 Executive Summary, accidents have reduced by 61% over the last decade. Barring one fatal crash of 2023, the year enjoyed the lowest fatality risk rate of 0.03 per million route sectors. This translates to roughly one accident in about 8.8 lakh flights. This is due to aviation stakeholder’s willingness to, earnestly investigate accidents to improve safety while, undertaking aggressive research and development (R&D). However, every now and then, we still come across news of flight disruptions. These disruptions can be categorised primarily into three areas: Equipment or sub-assembly failure, turbulence related in-flight injuries and accidents and lastly, misadventures by unruly passengers.

Whatever be the cause of the disruption, it leads to unforeseen expenses in terms of urgent public relations management exercises, legal penalties, increased unscheduled maintenance costs and of course, the loss of goodwill. In addition, the airline’s public relations officers or corporate communicators often have to work in overdrive to salvage the airline’s reputation.

 Today, digitization which includes the Internet of Things (IoT), coupled with modern testing technologies, has advanced to such an extent that, it is possible to minimise the damage caused by the aforementioned factors. While these risks can never be completely eliminated, they can be minimised through digital transformation by the application of Artificial Intelligence (AI), rapid broadband digital communication and super fast computing for data analytics, amongst other tools.

The advancements in aircraft’s diagnostic through R&D, destructive and nondestructive material testing and a concentrated effort by all aviation stakeholders to find the root cause of any failure, have improved aviation safety and minimised losses caused by black swans.

The current era of digitization integrates artificial intelligence, the Internet of Things (IoT), machine learning, data analytics, fast computing and reliable signal transmission, to process inputs from diverse fields in order to improve operational safety and reduce human errors in civil aviation.

This has been made possible by the quick capture of real- time data from the sensors of airborne aircrafts, meteorological balloons carrying radiosondes, satellite imagery and wind or weather measurement stations. These sensors generate large volumes of data, known as big and fast data. This data is quickly collected, collated, segregated and processed using customised algorithms run by super computers that apply artificial intelligence and machine learning as operational resources to deduce actionable insights for reducing bottom lines.

Digitization also enables this raw and refined data to be sent in near real-time to aircrafts while they are in flight. These insights are also utilised in evaluating and optimising preventive maintenance schedules, managing turbulence complexes (which can lead to increased flying time due to flight path deviations), reducing fuel burn and carbon footprints.

 As far as managing unruly air passengers is concerned; a neural network analysis of social media data footprints generated by the public is used to identify potential troublemakers who might misbehave inflight. Such individuals increase aviation costs by necessitating the deployment of air marshals, cause flight disruptions, incurring legal and public relations or corporate communication expenses due to their misbehaviour.

The as far as the third factor mentioned in the above disrupters ie equipment failure; material failure rates have been minimised due to digitisation and systematic R&D. Consequently, injuries due to material failure are the least likely to occur in an aircraft today. Turbulence related flight disruptions and their associated costs are more plausible and profound.

 An aircraft consists of various assemblies and sub-assemblies. These components have undergone extensive testing, for shelf and operational life estimations. Consequently, the accurate Mean Time Between Failures (MTBF) articulation of components; enables aircraft maintenance repair and overhaul (MRO) engineers to schedule their maintenance plans in a pragmatic way. This automatically minimises the fixed costs incurred by aircrafts during maintenance repair and overhauls schedules.

The use of modern non-destructive testing techniques, such as atomic absorption rate analysis and modelling of product deterioration graphs based on factors like excessive aircraft vibrations, temperature extremities, stress and strain, have advanced considerably. Accordingly, data on component failures is interpreted using AI models, which can determine whether an extension to component life can be granted to an assembly or sub-assembly. This approach reduces the bottom line of aircraft operating companies by enabling them to make the most of the, remaining useful life of a component without prematurely discarding it; thereby increasing profitability.

This is where a significant business opportunity lies for Indian engineers and scientists. They can establish aviation sub-assembly test benches to evaluate the residual life of equipment, thereby reducing costs. This presents a never-ending stream of revenue generation and business opportunities, especially for the pre used component market.

Turbulence is another operating cost enhancer. It refers to atmospheric disruptions in terms of wind speed, direction, temperature, humidity, cloud cover, etc. Usually, it is the meteorological department that studies the current weather parameters, correlates them with past data and applies climate models to predict turbulence in a given spatial dimension in the foreseeable future. It’s worth noting that the first supercomputer Cray and India’s Param were used for meteorological predictions.

Today, with advancements in artificial intelligence and big data management generated through an increasing number of ground weather stations, aircraft capturing relevant atmospheric data while flying on a real time basis, satellite imagery and the use of radiosondes have improved turbulence prediction significantly.

The key point here is that all these sensors whether flying or stationary, are generating real-time, fast, and large amounts of data, which is instantly transmitted to ground stations using high-power broadband digital communication. Ground based computers run software to process this data and generate near-real-time turbulence predictions in three dimensions. This data is then beamed back to the operational control centres of airlines or directly to the pilots.

The pilots can use this information to make calculated decisions regarding potential deviations from the flight path to avoid turbulence and ensure passenger safety. It’s important to note that if the deviation from the flight itinerary due to turbulence is large, fuel consumption and flight time increases. This impacts the operational costs and profitability.

Because the predicted turbulence cuboid, created through real-time data analysis, shows varying intensity from its core to the fringes, flight engineers can make informed decisions as to how much deviation is necessary to balance safety with cost overruns. This critical decision cannot be left entirely to computers. It requires human discretion and experience who run quantitative tools like Maximising and Minimising equations to find optimal parameters. This is equation-based application is taught in B Com (H) and MBA curricula in India

In turbulent zones, an aircraft tends to buffet up and down. Consequently, flight attendants, who are often serving passengers at such times, may be at risk as also some passengers, who despite warnings, refuse to fasten their seat-belts. If the aircraft encounters significant turbulence, the aircraft buffeting may throw passengers off their seats. This causes injuries and trauma to revenue-generating passengers which may impact the airlines goodwill, safety record and bottom and top lines as enumerated subsequently.

The turbulence related flight path changes not only increase the operational costs of the flight, but the airline may also need to spend on compensation for stress management, medical expenses and passenger injuries. Such delays also force it’s public relations machinery into overdrive to salvage the image of an airline that has caused human injuries and experienced delays in landing slots. Such delays can affect the subsequent itineraries of passengers who want to take other flights.

Moreover, it is likely that an aircraft facing significant disruptions may not be assigned the scheduled and economically favoured landing slot and docking site at cargo terminals which are equipped with air bridges and vestibules for passenger disembarkation. This adds to unforeseen expenses for the airline.

Usually, turbulence data is provided by the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) and other agencies to airlines. Turbulence estimation presents an economic opportunity for Indian companies by leveraging our IT industry, captured meteorological data, fast data communications and our extensive computing capacity to sell meteorological advisories for aircrafts operating within our airspace or even globally.

Entrepreneurial companies could also sell this data to visiting airlines operating in India and generate valuable foreign exchange. This could potentially become a significant revenue stream for the Indian economy as it strives to achieve the trillion dollar mark once these services are scaled up.

Human beings are generally well behaved. However, there are always some outliers to this statement. These individuals may include disruptive passengers who usurp other passengers’ legroom, engage in sexual harassment or inappropriate touching due to close proximity. Then there are fliers, who constantly get up to walk on the aisle and disturb others, or those who create food-related arguments. Additionally, issues such as liquor intolerance, air travel fears, or claustrophobia manifest disruptive behaviours in some passengers which is a nuisance.

In such cases, these individuals may occasionally harass fellow passengers or even engage in altercations with the airline crew or other passengers. This necessitates restraint by Air Marshals and even premature deviations from the planned itinerary to offload the disruptive passenger, involve the police and incur associated legal costs.

Moreover, in today’s digital world, it’s common for bystanders to record such incidents on their mobile phones and share with friends as soon as they land. In these scenarios, the airline’s corporate communication team perforce, goes into overdrive for damage control. This may include offering compensation to the aggrieved parties. All these factors ultimately increase the operational costs for the airline and eat into their net profits.

Such costs and vulnerabilities cannot be eliminated, but the use of social media analytics and neuroscience-based algorithms developed with psychologist’s insights gleaned from the social signatures left by potential passengers on the internet, can help in creating individual risk profiles of flyers. By analysing the social media activity of individuals, airlines can better understand and categorise potentially risky passengers.

This is not difficult because most people today love to maintain a digital presence across various platforms in audiovisual or textual modes. They often showcase their existence and activities on social media. This way individuals unknowingly disclose their personality traits, which can be analysed by trained professionals.

While the current level of data analytics and behaviour modelling is not highly advanced, still, outliers or trouble makers can be identified with a considerable degree of certainty. Airlines can take proactive measures, by designating certain individuals as banned flyers or charging higher ticket prices to cover the costs of additional security measures like deploying air marshals and other resources needed to manage potential disruptions caused by such passengers.

It is important to note that increasing ticket prices will not necessarily deter the disruptive behaviour, but some costs associated with disciplining and public relations efforts incurred to manage such people can be recouped through this process. Additionally, segregated aircraft seating arrangements can be structured to minimise the potential of flight disruptions caused by unruly passengers.

It’s a well-known fact that criminals are more likely to commit crimes if they believe that they can get away with it. However, if there is active surveillance and engagement by air marshals inflight and by the security staff at the airport, then; there is a possibility that a potentially disruptive individual may refrain from misbehaving. In such cases, the airline can not only ensure a smoother flight experience for others but also earn additional revenue from the disruptive outliers.

The idea of placing trouble creators on a non-flying list is a legitimate approach of managing passengers with dubious behavioural characteristics. This measure helps in reducing airport and flight disruptions caused by such individuals.

The digital era in aviation safety has indeed come of age. It offers solutions to reduce operating costs by minimising vulnerabilities. This includes creating a financial matrix-based comparison of turbulence related detours, estimating the residual life of aircraft assemblies, as well as predicting deviant human behaviour. These facets are then compared to the anticipated losses due to the activation of the aforementioned flight disrupting factors and economically or socially beneficial decisions are arrived at.

The implementation of the aforesaid of digital transformation ie capturing and utilising big data, integrating sensors, fast computing and reliable broadband communication enables risks to be minimised against unforeseen events that may impact an airline’s profitability. While these costs cannot be entirely eliminated, they can certainly be minimised.

By: Suman Sharma

After last fortnight’s apprehension of a boat carrying illegally smuggled betel nuts, the Indian Coast Guard (ICG) recently busted a major narcotics racket on the high seas. In an overnight operation on 12-13 April 2025, the ICG undertook an intelligence based anti-narcotics operation at sea jointly with the Gujarat Anti-Terrorism Squad (ATS). More than 300 kg of narcotics worth approximately Rs 1800 crore has been seized. The seized drugs are suspected to be methamphetamine.

The operation was a perfect example of inter-agency coordination wherein based on a corroborated input from Gujarat ATS, an ICG ship from the Coast Guard Region (West), which was on multi-mission deployment off North Maharashtra and South Gujarat area, diverted and intercepted an attempted transshipment in proximity of the International Maritime Boundary Line (IMBL) prior to being undertaken, thus leading to the successful operation.

Based on the credible intelligence input from the ATS, the ICG ship identified a suspect boat despite pitch darkness. On realising the approaching ICG ship, the suspect boat dumped its narcotics consignment in sea before it started fleeing towards the IMBL.

The alert ICG ship deployed its sea boat immediately for recovery of the jettisoned consignment whilst commencing a hot chase of the suspect boat.

The proximity of IMBL and the initial separation between the ICG ship and the boat at the time of its detection helped the perpetrator to evade interception before it crossed over the IMBL within a short time. The crossover resulted in termination of the hot chase and precluded the ICG ship to apprehend the suspect boat. Meanwhile the ICG team in sea-boat, after thorough search in the tough night conditions, recovered the sizeable amount narcotics that was dumped into sea.

The seized narcotics has been brought to Porbandar by the ICG ship for further investigations. The jointness of ICG and ATS, which has led to 13 such successful law enforcement operations in recent years reaffirms the synergy for national objective.

Last week, in a swift and well-coordinated maritime operation, the ICG successfully intercepted and apprehended Indian Fishing Boat (IFB)-‘Maa Basanti’ (Registration No: IND-WB-DS-MM-10023) approximately 72 nautical miles from Sagar Light, within the Indian Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ).

Upon boarding and inspection, the vessel was found to be carrying approximately 400–450 gunny bags suspected of illegal smuggling of betel nuts, with each bag weighing an estimated 50 to 60 kilograms. The total weight of the consignment is currently under verification. A total of 14 crew members were present on board at the time of the apprehension.

Following standard procedures, Maa Basanti was escorted to Paradip Port by the ICG Ship. The vessel and its crew have been handed over to the Customs authorities for further investigation and necessary legal action.

This operation highlights the Indian Coast Guard’s continued vigilance and commitment towards safeguarding the nation’s maritime interests and preventing illegal activities within India’s maritime domain.

By: Gayathri Pramod, Research Analyst, GSDN

Unexploded ordnance (UXO) in Azerbaijan, a persistent and hazardous legacy of armed conflict, demands urgent attention and international cooperation. The aftermath of the protracted Nagorno-Karabakh conflict has left these remnants of war posing an immediate danger to civilian life and severely hindering socio-economic development, the safe return of displaced populations, and post-conflict reconstruction. This analysis delves into the nature, scope, and implications of UXO in Azerbaijan, highlighting the systemic challenges associated with their clearance and the broader geopolitical context that continues to shape the UXO landscape in the region. The presence of UXO in Azerbaijan is intricately tied to the historical and political tensions surrounding the Nagorno-Karabakh region, which have led to a clear victory for Azerbaijan.

The armed confrontations between Armenian and Azerbaijani forces, particularly during the intense periods of conflict in the early 1990s and again in 2020, resulted in widespread deployment of various forms of military ordnance, including cluster munitions, artillery shells, landmines, and rockets. Many of these devices failed to detonate upon impact and remain buried or hidden across extensive areas, particularly in formerly occupied territories that have since returned to Azerbaijani control. The resurgence of conflict in 2020 significantly expanded the geographic scope of UXO contamination, extending the risk into new zones and complicating the already daunting task of clearance, which had a direct effect on the lives of civilians. These military piles and stocks are very hazardous for humans and the environment. UXOs are particularly insidious.

These include bombs, grenades, and munitions that failed to detonate as intended. Some are found years later, still lethal and hazardous. In one instance in Mardakert in the early 2000s, a downed helicopter left behind air-to-surface missiles and operational guns lying scattered in an open field. In another tragic case, a young boy named Artak Beglaryan—who would later become a prominent public figure—lost his sight after mistaking an unexploded bomblet for a toy. These stories are not rare; they are the reality of life in formerly contested areas. Since the 2020 ceasefire, reports of civilian casualties have persisted. The International Crisis Group recently noted that over 50 Azerbaijanis have been killed and nearly 300 injured due to mines and UXO. Often unaware of the risks, children are particularly vulnerable, prompting governments and international organizations to ramp up educational campaigns in schools near contaminated zones. The scale of UXO contamination is both vast and multifaceted. In many liberated districts such as Fuzuli, Jabrayil, and Aghdam, entire areas remain inaccessible due to the threat of unexploded ordnance. This widespread presence obstructs resettlement programs and delays critical infrastructure projects such as rebuilding roads, schools, and utilities. Moreover, the contamination of agricultural lands with UXO is particularly devastating for Azerbaijan, a country where agriculture plays a crucial role in local livelihoods and national economic output. Farmers cannot cultivate land without risking their lives, and the resulting economic paralysis affects food security and the broader process of rural revitalization.

The scale of problems in Azerbaijan

The human cost of unexploded ordnance is beyond stating. According to Landmine Monitor, Azerbaijan remains one of the most heavily mine-contaminated countries, with an estimated 1.5 million landmines posing a threat to over 13% of its territory. Since 1991, Armenian military forces have extensively planted mines within Azerbaijani territory—including Karabakh, a region now an integral part of Azerbaijan, and seven adjacent districts—both during the occupation and aftermath of the Second Karabakh War in September-November 2020, throughout the post-conflict period. Since the end of the war in November 2020, 392 Azerbaijani civilians have been killed or seriously injured, despite the country immediately launching extensive humanitarian demining operations. Dozens of civilians, including children, have been killed or maimed since the end of active hostilities, often while returning to inspect or reclaim their homes. In total, over 3,400 Azerbaijanis have been victims of mines since the conflict began in 1991 – including 359 children and 38 women. UXO-related incidents have also affected demining personnel, underscoring the extreme risks faced even by trained professionals. This continuing toll on human life reflects the enduring threat that UXOs pose, even in the absence of active conflict. It also points to immediate and sustained investment in public education campaigns to raise awareness among returning residents and continued international funding and expertise to support clearance and victim assistance programs.

The issue of UXO in Azerbaijan has become a deeply entrenched humanitarian concern, particularly as thousands of internally displaced persons (IDPs) make their way back to their former homes in regions surrounding Nagorno-Karabakh. These lands, once ravaged by war, now hold hidden dangers beneath their surface—remnants of decades of conflict in the form of landmines and UXO that continue to claim lives and limbs. The problem is not new, but the urgency is heightened by the sheer number of people returning to rebuild their lives. In the years since the 2020 ceasefire agreement, Azerbaijan has undertaken significant efforts to address this threat. Vugar Suleymanov, who heads the Azerbaijan National Agency for Mine Action (ANAMA), reported that over 111,000 hectares of contaminated land had been cleared in just three years. These efforts have uncovered and safely removed more than 30,000 anti-personnel mines, around 18,000 anti-tank mines, and over 60,000 pieces of unexploded ordnance. While these numbers reflect impressive progress, they also hint at the scale of the problem—it is immense, and the road ahead remains long and dangerous. The mine contamination is not just a recent by-product of the latest war. Mines and UXO have been buried across the region since the first Karabakh conflict in the early 1990s. Their placement records are often missing, inaccurate, or deliberately withheld, and their after-effects remain. 

Recently, the Ministry of Internal Affairs (MIA) warned Azerbaijani citizens, urging them to be extremely cautious when encountering mines, unexploded military ordinances, or unknown objects. According to Azernews, the Ministry’s statement emphasizes avoiding contact with potentially dangerous items. The public is advised not to touch or handle mines, unexploded ordnance, or any unfamiliar objects that may pose a threat. The warning advises against entering dangerous areas and urges people not to intervene with discarded munitions. The statement further advises, “Do not touch mines, unexploded military ordnance, or unknown objects, and do not pick them up. Never attempt to interfere with them to protect your life.” While the international spotlight often focuses on political developments, the human cost of landmines and unexploded ordnance continues to mount quietly. For example, thousands of hectares of farmland remain unusable in the Tavush region of Armenia due to mines. Efforts to address the problem have included establishing a U.S.-funded demining center in Etchmiadzin, which focused on training local teams, though border-adjacent defensive minefields were notably excluded from clearance plans. Unfortunately, mine action has often been politicized. Accusations have been levelled against demining organizations, including the HALO Trust, not necessarily for what they have done but because of how politically sensitive mine clearance has become. This underscores the need for international cooperation and the importance of global solidarity in dealing with the legacy of war.

Given the devastating impact and widespread presence of landmines, Azerbaijan has prioritized humanitarian demining efforts in the Karabakh and East Zangezur regions. Although international partners support these efforts, more assistance is urgently needed. To date, approximately 185,707 hectares of land have been cleared by the Mine Action Agency of Azerbaijan (ANAMA) and other operators. These operations have led to the successful detection and neutralization of 181,148 explosive devices, including 36,103 anti-personnel mines, 21,457 anti-tank mines, and 123,376 unexploded ordnances (UXOs). Landmine clearance is an inherently complex and lengthy process. However, Azerbaijan has mobilized its national resources and invested in modern technologies to improve the efficiency of mine action. Despite these significant efforts, international support remains insufficient. Currently, the Azerbaijani government finances approximately 95% of all demining operations. While contributions from international organizations and partner countries such as KS relief, NSPA, MLI, Roots of Peace, ARMAC, and MAG are valuable, they fall short of meeting the full scale of the challenge. Azerbaijan continues to call for more substantial political and practical support from the international community to address the humanitarian consequences of landmines and accelerate the clearance of affected areas.

Landmines also continue to serve as a significant impediment to the return of internally displaced persons (IDPs) and the reconstruction of infrastructure. Despite Azerbaijan’s repeated appeals to Armenia, both before and after the 44-day Patriotic War, to provide accurate landmine maps, Armenia initially denied the existence of such maps. Only under international pressure did Armenia eventually provide limited information, which covered only a tiny portion of the mined areas and proved to be only 25% accurate. Over 55% of recent landmine incidents have occurred in areas not covered by these maps. Furthermore, while Armenia’s maps claimed that approximately 400,000 landmines had been planted in Azerbaijani territory, the actual number is believed to be closer to 1.5 million. The provision of accurate and comprehensive maps of all landmine-contaminated sites is essential to ensuring the safe return of IDPs and facilitating reconstruction in the affected regions. Since 2022, more than 10,000 former IDPs have returned to 10 settlements in the Karabakh and East Zangezur regions. Around 30,000 people live and work in these areas, contributing to key sectors such as construction, governance, and industry. By the end of 2025, the number of resettled communities is expected to increase to 30. The Azerbaijani government has undertaken significant initiatives to support the development of these regions, with a focus on creating employment opportunities, fostering sustainable regional development, and ensuring dignified living conditions.

The government is constructing modern housing, developing infrastructure, and providing essential services to support these goals. Economic programs are also being launched to stimulate local business development and agriculture. These comprehensive efforts aim to ensure that the people returning to Karabakh and East Zangezur can live in a safe, stable, and prosperous environment. Additionally, Karabakh and East Zangezur have been designated green energy zones. Since the end of the 44-day Patriotic War in 2020, Azerbaijan has made substantial investments in hydro energy, with 270 megawatts of hydroelectric power already operational within four years. The continued presence of landmines in Azerbaijan poses a serious security threat and remains a significant obstacle to peace, reconciliation, and sustainable development. On the international front, Azerbaijan has actively raised awareness about the serious landmine threat in Karabakh and East Zangezur.

In 2023, the country formally recognized humanitarian demining as its 18th National Sustainable Development Goal and began advocating for its adoption as the 18th Global Sustainable Development Goal by the United Nations. Azerbaijan also proposed the establishment of a Special Contact Group on Humanitarian Demining within the Non-Aligned Movement, which became operational in September 2023. That same year, Azerbaijan led a resolution at the 15th meeting of the state’s parties to the 1954 Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict. The resolution, titled “The Impact of Mines on Cultural Heritage,” addressed the devastating effects of landmines on cultural sites. In another significant step forward, in May 2024, the Mine Action Agency of Azerbaijan (ANAMA) and the United Nations Development Programme signed a letter of intent to establish a “Centre of Excellence” focused on mine action education. This new centre will enable Azerbaijan to share its expertise with other countries facing similar challenges. Most recently, on April 4, 2025, the Permanent Mission of Azerbaijan to the United Nations and the Centre of Analysis of International Relations (AIR Centre), a leading Baku-based think tank on foreign and security policy, co-organized a high-level discussion at the UN Headquarters in New York. The event, “Saving Lives Through Humanitarian Mine Action in Azerbaijan,” was held in observance of the International Day for Mine Awareness and Assistance in Mine Action. It brought together key stakeholders in the field to address the humanitarian impact of landmines and explosive remnants of war in Azerbaijan, reaffirming the country’s commitment to tackling the global landmine crisis.

Azerbaijan’s global outreach activities

Beyond the humanitarian and developmental dimensions, the UXO issue in Azerbaijan also carries strategic and political implications. The extent to which the Azerbaijani government can effectively manage UXO clearance operations is closely tied to its broader goals of consolidating control over recaptured territories and projecting an image of stability and state capacity. At the same time, failing to clear these areas fully or do so quickly could fuel domestic frustration or undermine efforts at reconciliation and reintegration. The region is not an easy task; moreover, the presence of UXOs can be used as a political tool in narratives of victimhood and legitimacy, with both Armenia and Azerbaijan accusing each other of deploying prohibited weapons or failing to cooperate in humanitarian demining. More recently, even the exchange of minefield maps has been caught up in political bargaining, such as when Armenia reportedly traded such data to release detained individuals. However, it was not always this way. In the early 2000s, efforts were made to bridge divides through joint mine clearance training programs involving Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia under U.S.-led initiatives. These Confidence and Security Building Measures were a testament to what could be achieved with cooperation. There is hope that such cooperation might return.

Experts like Hafiz Safikhanov in Baku have suggested that similar initiatives are still possible. However, meaningful collaboration likely hinges on the resolution of deeper political disputes. Perhaps most critically, the region could consider joining the Ottawa Treaty, which seeks to eliminate the use of anti-personnel mines. For that to happen, however, the war of words must end and be replaced by a commitment to saving lives and ensuring a safer future. Until then, the fields of Azerbaijan—silent, green, and often deadly—will continue to bear witness to a past that refuses to be buried.

International law also intersects with the UXO challenge in significant ways. The use of certain types of ordnance, such as cluster munitions, has drawn criticism from human rights organizations and may contravene international humanitarian norms, particularly when such weapons are used in civilian-populated areas. While neither Azerbaijan nor Armenia is a party to the Convention on Cluster Munitions, the growing global consensus against the use of such weapons places moral and diplomatic pressure on both sides.

In this context, Azerbaijan’s UXO clearance efforts are not just technical operations but also carry implications for its international image and relationships, especially with donor countries and institutions concerned with post-conflict rehabilitation. Efforts to address the UXO problem in Azerbaijan have been both concerted and ongoing, yet remain challenged by the scale of the issue and the complexity of the terrain. The Azerbaijan National Agency for Mine Action (ANAMA) has been at the forefront of clearance operations, supported by international partners, including the United Nations Development Programme and various NGOs. Despite significant progress, the sheer density of contamination and the lack of accurate mapping from previous decades of conflict make the task extremely arduous. Additionally, the use of cluster munitions during the 2020 conflict — which scatter multiple smaller sub-munitions over a wide area — has introduced a more unpredictable pattern of UXO dispersal, complicating the technical and logistical aspects of demining operations.

The future trajectory of UXO management in Azerbaijan will depend on several interrelated factors. These include the sustained commitment of government resources, the availability of international support, technological innovation in demining practices, and the overall political climate between Armenia and Azerbaijan. Advances in remote sensing, artificial intelligence, and drone-based surveying hold promise for enhancing the efficiency of clearance operations, but such technologies require significant investment and training. Additionally, peacebuilding and regional diplomacy progress could open new avenues for collaborative approaches to UXO clearance, although mutual distrust and unresolved grievances continue to pose serious obstacles.

In conclusion, unexploded ordnance in Azerbaijan represents a multifaceted challenge with far-reaching implications for human security, economic recovery, and political stability. While efforts at clearance and risk mitigation are ongoing, the problem remains deeply embedded in the region’s historical, technical, and geopolitical fabric. Addressing this issue comprehensively will require continued operational focus and a broader strategy that integrates humanitarian, developmental, and diplomatic dimensions. Until then, UXO will continue to cast a long shadow over Azerbaijan’s post-conflict recovery and its aspirations for lasting peace and development.