By: Manoj Karki
The modernization of China’s People’s Liberation Army (PLA) under President Xi Jinping is one of the most significant military transformations of the 21st century. To transform the PLA into a “world-class military” by 2049, Xi Jinping has driven a series of extensive reforms since assuming office in 2012. These reforms, first announced in 2015, seek to enhance the PLA’s capabilities in joint operations, advanced warfare, and global power projection, aligning with Xi’s vision of China’s “national rejuvenation.” The modernization process emphasizes organizational restructuring, technological integration, and combat readiness to equip the PLA to respond to regional and global threats.
Strategic Vision and Political Context
Xi Jinping’s modernization of the PLA is rooted in his strategic goal to reclaim China’s historical standing as a major world power. His “Chinese Dream” of national rejuvenation sees military strength as integral to safeguarding China’s territorial integrity and expanding its global influence. The PLA’s transformation is also a response to perceived threats, particularly from the United States, and a reflection of China’s ambitions to reshape the security dynamics of the Asia-Pacific region. This vision aligns with China’s increasing assertiveness in regional hotspots, including Taiwan, the South China Sea, and the East China Sea.
Xi’s modernization agenda has redefined the PLA’s role as the protector of the Communist Party’s authority. By reinforcing the Party’s control over the military, Xi has positioned the PLA not just as a national defense force but also as a tool for promoting China’s political and economic interests on the global stage. His reforms have focused on enhancing the PLA’s ability to “fight and win wars” by preparing it for modern warfare scenarios through a series of phased, top-down structural adjustments.
Key Phases of Modernization
Xi’s reforms can be divided into two main phases: “above-the-neck” and “below-the-neck” reforms. These phases address both the high-level command structures and the operational capabilities of the PLA across its branches.
Above-the-Neck Reforms: The “above-the-neck” phase began in 2015, focusing on the centralization and streamlining of the PLA’s command structure. One of the most significant changes was the reorganization of the Central Military Commission (CMC) and the establishment of five Theater Commands (Eastern, Southern, Western, Northern, and Central), which replaced the former seven Military Regions. This move aligned command chains with strategic regions, enhancing coordination and readiness for joint operations. The reforms also emphasized “jointness,” pushing for integration across the PLA’s four conventional services: the Army, Navy, Air Force, and Rocket Force.
As part of this restructuring, the PLA’s general departments were dismantled and reformed into 15 functional departments directly under the CMC, which strengthened civilian oversight and Xi’s direct control. Xi’s reforms aimed to remove corruption and inefficiencies, consolidating the Party’s authority over the PLA and ensuring that it could be deployed in line with Xi’s political and strategic goals.
Below-the-Neck Reforms: The “below-the-neck” phase, initiated in 2016, focused on improving the operational capabilities of the PLA’s individual services and introduced organizational restructuring at lower command levels. A shift to a brigade-centric structure for ground forces replaced the division-based system, allowing for faster mobilization and greater flexibility in joint operations. This change aligned the PLA with advanced military organizations, emphasizing the development of combined arms brigades capable of executing independent operations.
Additionally, the PLA Air Force (PLAAF) and PLA Rocket Force (PLAARF) were restructured for improved strategic and tactical coordination. The Rocket Force, previously known as the Second Artillery Corps, gained prominence as an independent branch, signaling China’s focus on long-range strike and nuclear deterrence. In parallel, the establishment of the Strategic Support Force (PLASSF) which has been disbanded now and replaced with three deputy theater-level forces that sit directly under the CMC: the PLA Information Support Force (PLAISF), the PLA Space Force (PLASF), and the PLA Cyberspace Force (PLACF). The likely motivation for this reorganization is to enhance the CMC’s control over these critical capabilities so that top leaders can exert more strategic influence over how they are allocated to and used by other parts of the military. Joint Logistic Support Force (PLAJLSF) introduced specialized capabilities in information warfare, cyber operations, and military logistics, essential for modern and future battlefields.
Modernization of PLA’s Key Branches
PLA Ground Forces: The Army has undergone substantial downsizing and restructuring to become more versatile and responsive. By reducing troop numbers by 300,000, Xi aimed to shed the Army’s historical dominance within the PLA and redirect resources toward advanced weapons, army aviation, and cyber warfare capabilities. The reformed brigade-battalion structure enabled the PLA to adopt a flatter, more agile command hierarchy, suitable for modern, multi-domain operations.
PLA Navy (PLAN): The PLAN has received increased funding and focus under Xi’s leadership, reflecting China’s ambition to project power beyond its borders. PLAN’s modernization includes expanding its fleet, which now includes advanced destroyers, frigates, and submarines, and the commissioning of aircraft carriers like the Liaoning and Shandong with the third, Fujian, currently undergoing sea trials. These assets support China’s “far-seas” naval operations, securing its interests along maritime trade routes, and increasing its presence in contested waters like the South China Sea. PLAN’s development of anti-access/area-denial (A2/AD) capabilities counters U.S. influence in the region, asserting Chinese dominance over critical sea lanes.
PLA Air Force (PLAAF): Under the reforms, the PLAAF has enhanced its strategic reach and integrated new technologies. Key advancements include fifth-generation fighter jets like the J-20 and H-20 stealth bombers, improving China’s aerial combat and strategic strike capabilities. The PLAAF has adopted a base-brigade structure that promotes coordination with other services and enables faster deployment. The PLAAF’s modernization not only bolsters China’s air defense but also supports its broader geopolitical ambitions by projecting air power in contested areas like Taiwan and the East China Sea.
PLA Rocket Force (PLARF): The PLARF, designated as an independent branch, has become central to China’s strategic deterrence and power projection. Equipped with a growing arsenal of ballistic and cruise missiles, including hypersonic missiles, the PLARF represents China’s emphasis on counter-intervention strategies. The development of long-range missiles and advancements in nuclear technology reflect China’s intention to maintain a credible deterrent against potential adversaries, particularly the United States. This enhanced capability underscores China’s resolve to defend its core interests while reshaping the regional security architecture.
Strategic Support Force (PLASSF): Established in 2015, the PLASSF embodies the PLA’s push toward “intelligentized” and “informationized” warfare, encompassing cyber, space, and electronic warfare capabilities. The PLASSF integrates artificial intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance capabilities to support PLA operations, creating a “system of systems” approach for future combat scenarios. As cyber and electronic warfare become increasingly critical, the PLASSF’s role in securing Chinese interests in digital and space domains makes it an essential component of the PLA’s modernization. But in April 2024, the PLASSF was disbanded and replaced by three deputy theater-level forces that sit directly under the CMC: the PLA Information Support Force (PLAISF), the PLA Space Force (PLASF), and the PLA Cyberspace Force (PLACF). This bureaucratic upgrade suggests a rising focus in the PLA on information warfare and network capabilities.
Joint Logistic Support Force (PLAJLSF): The PLAJLSF, created in 2016, supports the logistical demands of China’s expanding military operations. It coordinates resources across all Theater Commands, ensuring efficient supply chains and medical support. The PLAJLSF’s capacity was tested during the COVID-19 pandemic when it managed rapid resource deployment across China and facilitated global medical support as part of China’s “mask diplomacy.” Its establishment highlights the need for a sophisticated logistics network to support China’s ambitions for a global military presence.
Technological Advancements and Training Reforms
Technological innovation is a cornerstone of Xi’s military reforms. The PLA has invested heavily in emerging technologies such as artificial intelligence, quantum computing, hypersonic missiles, and unmanned systems. The incorporation of such technologies reflects China’s desire to leapfrog conventional military limitations and compete with advanced military powers. The modernization process also involves enhancing training regimens, with PLA exercises increasingly focusing on joint operations, realistic combat scenarios, and readiness for multi-domain warfare.
Challenges and Future Prospects
Despite impressive advancements, the PLA faces several challenges. Corruption within the ranks, while mitigated, remains a concern, and the restructuring has temporarily affected morale among mid-level officers. Additionally, the PLA’s lack of recent combat experience limits its ability to test its new capabilities in real-world scenarios. U.S. export controls on high-tech goods pose another obstacle, making self-reliance in defense technology a pressing necessity.
Xi’s vision for a “world-class” military by 2049 remains ambitious, particularly as the PLA still has strides to make in mastering joint operations and achieving interoperability across its branches. Moreover, the international community, led by the U.S. and its allies, has increased its vigilance, potentially countering China’s rise with collaborative security frameworks. Nevertheless, the PLA’s modernization underscores China’s commitment to reshaping the balance of power in Asia, signaling that its transformation is well underway.
Conclusion
Under Xi Jinping, the modernization of the PLA represents a strategic shift in China’s military posture, with implications for regional and global security. Through extensive reforms, organizational restructuring, and technological integration, the PLA has transitioned into a formidable military force. While challenges persist, Xi’s leadership has laid the foundation for a new era in Chinese military power, one that aims to project influence and defend China’s interests on the world stage. As China approaches its 2049 target, the PLA’s trajectory will remain a critical element in the evolving landscape of global security.
