By: Mahima Sharma, Research Analyst, GSDN

India’s nuclear programme stands as a testament to the nation’s ambition for energy independence and security. Since its inception in the mid-20th century, this programme has evolved from a modest initiative into a complex framework aimed at harnessing both uranium and thorium resources. With approximately 25% of the world’s known thorium reserves, India is uniquely positioned to leverage this resource for sustainable energy production, addressing both current and future energy demands. As the nation grapples with rising energy needs, the significance of nuclear energy becomes increasingly apparent, contributing only 3% to India’s electricity generation today but projected to reach 9% by 2047. This growth is not merely a reflection of energy strategy but also a critical component of India’s broader geopolitical posture, enhancing its standing on the global stage while ensuring a reliable energy supply for its burgeoning economy.

Historical Context

India’s nuclear programme began in the 1940s and 1950s, driven by Dr. Homi Bhabha, who is often referred to as the Father of India’s atomic energy initiative. Recognizing the country’s limited uranium resources—only about 1-2% of global reserves—Bhabha formulated a three-stage nuclear power programme aimed at achieving long-term energy security through the efficient utilization of India’s abundant thorium reserves, which account for approximately 25% of the world’s known supply. This innovative approach was designed to circumvent the limitations posed by scarce uranium while capitalizing on thorium’s potential as a sustainable energy source. The three-stage programme consists of:

1. Pressurized Heavy Water Reactors (PHWRs) fuelled by natural uranium.
2. Fast Breeder Reactors (FBRs) that utilize plutonium-based fuel.
3. Thermal Breeder Reactors for utilizing thorium.

This strategy aims to generate nuclear power while ensuring minimal waste through a closed fuel cycle, where spent fuel from one stage is reprocessed for further use.

The Three-Stage Nuclear Programme

India’s three-stage nuclear power programme is a strategic initiative designed to ensure energy security and independence through efficient use of limited uranium resources and abundant thorium reserves. The stages are:

1. Stage 1: Pressurized Heavy Water Reactors (PHWRs)
   • These reactors utilize natural uranium and are crucial for generating fissile material, specifically plutonium, necessary for subsequent stages.
2. Stage 2: Fast Breeder Reactors (FBRs)
   • FBRs use plutonium derived from PHWR spent fuel and can generate more fissile material than they consume, effectively breeding additional plutonium.
3. Stage 3: Thermal Breeder Reactors
   • This stage focuses on advanced reactors that utilize thorium as a primary fuel source, converting thorium-232 into uranium-233.
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Significance of Thorium

Thorium holds particular significance for India due to its abundance; the country possesses about 25% of the world’s known thorium reserves, primarily located in coastal monazite sands. Unlike uranium, thorium is not fissile on its own and requires conversion to uranium-233 for use in reactors. The potential for thorium-based energy generation offers several advantages:

• Energy Independence: Utilizing indigenous thorium reduces reliance on imported uranium.
• Sustainability: Thorium reactors produce significantly less nuclear waste compared to conventional uranium reactors.
• Environmental Benefits: Thorium contributes to cleaner energy production with minimal greenhouse gas emissions.

Transitioning to large-scale thorium utilization will require significant advancements in technology and infrastructure, particularly in developing efficient breeding processes and reactor designs.

Current Status of Nuclear Power in India

As of late 2023, India’s nuclear power capacity stands at 8,180 megawatts (MW) from 24 operational reactors, reflecting a growth from 4,780 MW in 2013-14—over a 70% increase in a decade. Annual electricity generation has risen from 34,228 million units in 2013-14 to approximately 47,971 million units in 2023-24. There are 21 additional reactors under development by the Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited (NPCIL), aiming to add about 15,300 MW to the grid. This includes nine reactors under construction with a total capacity of 7,300 MW, and twelve in pre-project activities expected to contribute another 8,000 MW.

New Projects and International Collaborations

India plans significant expansion in its nuclear sector, targeting an increase to 22,480 MW by 2031-32, with an ultimate goal of reaching 100 GW by 2047. Major projects include:

• Kudankulam Nuclear Power Plant: In collaboration with Russia, four new reactors with a capacity of 1,000 MW each are planned.
• Fast Breeder Reactors (FBRs): The Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor (PFBR) at Kalpakkam marks India’s entry into advanced reactor technology.
• New PHWRs: Approval for ten new PHWRs with a combined capacity of 7,000 MW, developed across various states.

International collaborations with countries like the USA and Russia facilitate technology transfer and enhance operational capabilities.

Challenges Facing the Nuclear Programme

Key challenges include:

1. Need for Advanced Technology and Investment: Despite ambitious plans, the pace of reactor construction has been slow due to quality control issues and financial burdens associated with developing new reactors.
2. Public Perception of Safety: Following the Fukushima disaster in 2011, public concerns regarding nuclear safety have increased scrutiny on facilities worldwide. The government must reassure the public about safety protocols while advancing its nuclear agenda.
3. Civil Liability Laws: Stringent liability frameworks established post-Bhopal gas tragedy raise concerns among foreign suppliers regarding potential liabilities, deterring international collaboration essential for technology transfer.

Future Prospects

India’s nuclear power capacity is projected to expand significantly from 8,180 MW to 22,480 MW by 2031-32, contributing nearly 9% of electricity generation by 2047. Recent developments include adding two indigenously designed 700 MW PHWRs at Kakrapar and ongoing construction of nine more reactors. To facilitate growth in nuclear energy, several policy recommendations include:

• Enhancing Public-Private Partnerships: Collaboration between public entities and private companies can drive innovation and efficiency.
• International Cooperation: Strengthening partnerships for technology transfer is vital for accessing advanced reactor designs.
• Streamlining Regulatory Frameworks: Revisiting civil liability laws could attract foreign investment.
• Investment in Research and Development: Increased funding for R&D is essential for developing next-generation reactors like small modular reactors (SMRs).
• Public Engagement and Education: Transparent communication can build trust regarding nuclear safety.

By implementing these changes, India can navigate challenges facing its nuclear programme while maximizing nuclear energy’s potential as a cornerstone of its future energy strategy.

Conclusion

India’s nuclear programme is crucial for energy security as it seeks to meet growing demands while transitioning to a low-carbon economy. With ambitious targets set by the government to increase capacity significantly—aiming for 22,480 MW by 2031 and ultimately reaching 100 GW by 2047—the programme plays a key role in achieving net-zero emissions by 2070.However, balancing growth with safety and sustainability is essential. Ensuring robust safety protocols will maintain public trust while investing in sustainable practices will minimize environmental impacts. By fostering a culture of safety and sustainability alongside aggressive growth targets, India can position itself as a leader in nuclear energy and contribute significantly to global climate change efforts while securing its energy future.